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Psychology ch. 10


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Ilayda Weasley


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[Front]


developmental psychology
[Back]


study of how behaviour changes over the lifespan

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Psychology ch. 10 - Marcador

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Psychology ch. 10 - Detalles

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Developmental psychology
Study of how behaviour changes over the lifespan
Post hoc fallacy
False assumption that because one event occurred before another event, it must have caused that event
Cohort effects
Effect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time
Cross-sectional design
Research design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time
Longitudinal design
Research design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time
Attrition
Participants dropping out of the study before it is completed
Gene-environment interaction
Situation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed
Nature via nurture
Tendency of individuals with certain genetic predispositions to seek out and create environments that permit the expression of those predispositions
Gene expression
Activation or deactivation of genes by environmental experiences throughout development, nature affects how we react to nurture
Zygote
Fertilised egg
In how many stages unfolds prenatal physical developments of a zygote>
- germinal stage - embryonic stage - fetal stage
Germinal stage
- the zygote divides and doubles, forming a blastocyst - around the middle of week 2, the cells begin to differentiate
Blastocyst
A ball of identical cells that have not yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part
Embryonic stage
The blastocyst becomes an embryo
Embryo
Second to eighth week of prenatal development, during which limbs, facial features and major organs of the body take form
Fetal stage
- major organs are established, the heart begins to beat - the embryo becomes a foetus
Foetus
Period of prenatal development from ninth week until birth after all major organs are established and physical maturation is the primary change
What are obstacles to normal foetal development?
- hazardous environmental influences - genetic disorders (or random errors in cell division) - premature birth
Teratogen
An environmental factor that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development
Foetal alcohol syndrome
Condition resulting from high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure, causing learning disabilities, physical growth retardation, facial malformations and behavioural disorders
Motor behaviours
Bodily motion that occurs as a result of self-initiated force that moves the bones and muscles
Adolescence
The transition between childhood and adulthood commonly associated with the teenage years
What helps the body mature to an adult body?
Androgens (testosterone / oestrogens)
Puberty (sexual maturation)
The achievement of sexual maturation resulting in the potential to reproduce
Primary sex characteristics
A physical feature such as the reproductive organs and genitals that distinguish the sexes
Secondary sex characteristics
A sex-differentiating characteristic that does not relate directly to reproduction, such as breast enlargement in women and deepening voices in men
Menarche
Start of menstruation
Spermarche
Boy's first ejaculation
Physical changes in middle adulthood?
- decline in muscle tone and increase in body fat - hearing decline - sense of smell becomes less sensitive - women see a decline in fertility and the menopause - men see a decline in sperm production and testosterone levels, and maintaining an erection and achieving ejaculation becomes difficult
Menopause
The termination of menstruation, marking the end of a woman's reproductive potential
Changes in agility and physical coordination with age?
- individual and task-specific differences in the effects of aging on motor coordination - complex tasks show greater effects of decline - many changes can also be due to disease (of age)
Cognitive development
Study of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, reason, communicate and remember
How do cognitive theories differ in three ways?
1. stage-like changes in understanding (spurts of knowledge) vs. continuous changes in understanding (gradual incremental changes in understanding) 2. domain-general account of development vs. a domain-specific account of development 3. sources of learning: physical, biological, or social interaction
Domain-general account of development
Kids' cognitive skills affect almost all areas of cognitive function
Domain-specific account of development
Kids' cognitive skills develop indepedently
Piaget's theory
Piaget attempted to identify the stages that children pass through on their way to adult-like thinking and his biggest contribution was the realisation that children are not mini-adults
Equilibration
Maintaining a balance between their experience world knowledge and their understanding of it
Assimilation
Piagetian process of absorbing new experience into current knowledge structures
Accomodation
Piagetian process of altering a belief to make it more compatible with experience
What are piaget's stages of development?
1. sensorimotor stage 2. pre-operational stage 3. concrete operational stage 4. formal operations stage
Sensorimotor stage
Stage in piaget's theory characterised by a focus on the here and now without the ability to represent experiences mentally
Mental representation
Milestone of sensorimotor stage in which children gain the ability to think about things that are absent from immediate surroundings
Object permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view
Deferred imitation
The ability to perform an action observed earlier
Pre-operational stage
Stage in piaget's theory characterised by the ability to construct mental representations of experience but not yet perform operations on them
Egocentrism
Inability to see the world from other's perspectives
Conservation tasks
Piaget task requiring children to understand that despite a transformation in the physical presentation of an amount, the amount remains the same
Concrete operational stage
Stage in piaget's theory characterised by the ability to perform mental operations on physical events only
Formal operations stage
Stage in piaget's theory characterised by the ability to perform hypothetical reasoning beyond the here and now
Pros of piaget's theory?
- helped us understand how childish thinking turns into adult thinking
What have psychologists learned from piaget?
1. children are different from adults 2. learning is active, rather than passive 3. cognitive processes may cut across multiple domains of knowledge
Cons of piaget's theory?
- research proves that it is more continuous than stage-like - developmental change is less domain-general - he underestimated children's abilities - culturally biased methodologies - biased tests on his own children
Vygotsky's theory
Social and cultural influences on learning
Scaffolding
Vygotskian learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children's learning but gradually remove structure as children become more competent
Zone of proximal development
Vygotsky's most influential notion of a phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction
General cognitive accounts
Emphasise that general cognitive abilities are acquired rather than innate knowledge
Socio-cultural accounts
Emohasise that social context and interaction guide children's understanding of the world
Modular accounts
Emphasises the idea of domain-specific learning
Theory of mind
Ability to reason about what other people know or believe
Stranger anxiety
A fear of strangers developing at 8/9 months, declines at 16 months
Temperament
Basic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin
Behavioural inhibition
Becoming frightened when seeing new stimuli
Attachment
The strong emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest
Imprinting
Attaching to the first moving object one sees
Contact comfort
Positive emotions afforded by touch
Strange situation
A laboratory procedure designed to evaluate attachment style by observing 1-year-old's reactions to being separated from and then reunited with their primary caregivers (moms)
Average expectable environment
Environment that provides children with basic needs for affection and discipline
Identity
Our sense of who we are, as well as our life goals and priorities
Psychosocial crisis
Dilemma concerning an individual's relation to other people
Emerging adulthood
Period of life between the ages of 18 and 25 when many aspects of emotional development, identity, and personality become solidified
Role experimentation
Trying one different hats in an effort to see which one fits best
How many stages of thinking in the heinz moral dilemma?
1. pre-conventional morality 2. conventional morality 3. post-conventional morality
Midlife crisis
Supposed phase of adulthood characterised by emotional distress about the aging process and an attempt to regain youth
Empty-nest syndrome
Alleged period of depression in mothers following the departure of their grown children from the home
Four ways to measure age other than chronological?
1. biological 2. psychological 3. functional 4. social