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level: Level 1

Questions and Answers List

level questions: Level 1

QuestionAnswer
developmental psychologystudy of how behaviour changes over the lifespan
post hoc fallacyfalse assumption that because one event occurred before another event, it must have caused that event
cohort effectseffect observed in a sample of participants that results from individuals in the sample growing up at the same time
cross-sectional designresearch design that examines people of different ages at a single point in time
longitudinal designresearch design that examines development in the same group of people on multiple occasions over time
attritionparticipants dropping out of the study before it is completed
gene-environment interactionsituation in which the effects of genes depend on the environment in which they are expressed
nature via nurturetendency of individuals with certain genetic predispositions to seek out and create environments that permit the expression of those predispositions
gene expressionactivation or deactivation of genes by environmental experiences throughout development, nature affects how we react to nurture
zygotefertilised egg
in how many stages unfolds prenatal physical developments of a zygote>- germinal stage - embryonic stage - fetal stage
germinal stage- the zygote divides and doubles, forming a blastocyst - around the middle of week 2, the cells begin to differentiate
blastocysta ball of identical cells that have not yet begun to take on any specific function in a body part
embryonic stagethe blastocyst becomes an embryo
embryosecond to eighth week of prenatal development, during which limbs, facial features and major organs of the body take form
fetal stage- major organs are established, the heart begins to beat - the embryo becomes a foetus
foetusperiod of prenatal development from ninth week until birth after all major organs are established and physical maturation is the primary change
what are obstacles to normal foetal development?- hazardous environmental influences - genetic disorders (or random errors in cell division) - premature birth
teratogenan environmental factor that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development
foetal alcohol syndromecondition resulting from high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure, causing learning disabilities, physical growth retardation, facial malformations and behavioural disorders
motor behavioursbodily motion that occurs as a result of self-initiated force that moves the bones and muscles
adolescencethe transition between childhood and adulthood commonly associated with the teenage years
what helps the body mature to an adult body?androgens (testosterone / oestrogens)
puberty (sexual maturation)the achievement of sexual maturation resulting in the potential to reproduce
primary sex characteristicsa physical feature such as the reproductive organs and genitals that distinguish the sexes
secondary sex characteristicsa sex-differentiating characteristic that does not relate directly to reproduction, such as breast enlargement in women and deepening voices in men
menarchestart of menstruation
spermarcheboy's first ejaculation
physical changes in middle adulthood?- decline in muscle tone and increase in body fat - hearing decline - sense of smell becomes less sensitive - women see a decline in fertility and the menopause - men see a decline in sperm production and testosterone levels, and maintaining an erection and achieving ejaculation becomes difficult
menopausethe termination of menstruation, marking the end of a woman's reproductive potential
changes in agility and physical coordination with age?- individual and task-specific differences in the effects of aging on motor coordination - complex tasks show greater effects of decline - many changes can also be due to disease (of age)
cognitive developmentstudy of how children acquire the ability to learn, think, reason, communicate and remember
cognitive theories differ in how many ways?three
how do cognitive theories differ in three ways?1. stage-like changes in understanding (spurts of knowledge) vs. continuous changes in understanding (gradual incremental changes in understanding) 2. domain-general account of development vs. a domain-specific account of development 3. sources of learning: physical, biological, or social interaction
domain-general account of developmentkids' cognitive skills affect almost all areas of cognitive function
domain-specific account of developmentkids' cognitive skills develop indepedently
piaget's theorypiaget attempted to identify the stages that children pass through on their way to adult-like thinking and his biggest contribution was the realisation that children are not mini-adults
equilibrationmaintaining a balance between their experience world knowledge and their understanding of it
assimilationpiagetian process of absorbing new experience into current knowledge structures
accomodationpiagetian process of altering a belief to make it more compatible with experience
what are piaget's stages of development?1. sensorimotor stage 2. pre-operational stage 3. concrete operational stage 4. formal operations stage
sensorimotor stagestage in piaget's theory characterised by a focus on the here and now without the ability to represent experiences mentally
mental representationmilestone of sensorimotor stage in which children gain the ability to think about things that are absent from immediate surroundings
object permanencethe understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view
deferred imitationthe ability to perform an action observed earlier
pre-operational stagestage in piaget's theory characterised by the ability to construct mental representations of experience but not yet perform operations on them
egocentrisminability to see the world from other's perspectives
conservation taskspiaget task requiring children to understand that despite a transformation in the physical presentation of an amount, the amount remains the same
concrete operational stagestage in piaget's theory characterised by the ability to perform mental operations on physical events only
formal operations stagestage in piaget's theory characterised by the ability to perform hypothetical reasoning beyond the here and now
pros of piaget's theory?- helped us understand how childish thinking turns into adult thinking
what have psychologists learned from piaget?1. children are different from adults 2. learning is active, rather than passive 3. cognitive processes may cut across multiple domains of knowledge
cons of piaget's theory?- research proves that it is more continuous than stage-like - developmental change is less domain-general - he underestimated children's abilities - culturally biased methodologies - biased tests on his own children
vygotsky's theorysocial and cultural influences on learning
scaffoldingvygotskian learning mechanism in which parents provide initial assistance in children's learning but gradually remove structure as children become more competent
zone of proximal developmentvygotsky's most influential notion of a phase of learning during which children can benefit from instruction
general cognitive accountsemphasise that general cognitive abilities are acquired rather than innate knowledge
socio-cultural accountsemohasise that social context and interaction guide children's understanding of the world
modular accountsemphasises the idea of domain-specific learning
when do infants show signs of object permanence?5 months old
at what age do the parietal and left temporal lobe junction let infants name and recognise themselves?2 years
theory of mindability to reason about what other people know or believe
stranger anxietya fear of strangers developing at 8/9 months, declines at 16 months
temperamentbasic emotional style that appears early in development and is largely genetic in origin
behavioural inhibitionbecoming frightened when seeing new stimuli
attachmentthe strong emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest
imprintingattaching to the first moving object one sees
contact comfortpositive emotions afforded by touch
strange situationa laboratory procedure designed to evaluate attachment style by observing 1-year-old's reactions to being separated from and then reunited with their primary caregivers (moms)
average expectable environmentenvironment that provides children with basic needs for affection and discipline
identityour sense of who we are, as well as our life goals and priorities
psychosocial crisisdilemma concerning an individual's relation to other people
emerging adulthoodperiod of life between the ages of 18 and 25 when many aspects of emotional development, identity, and personality become solidified
role experimentationtrying one different hats in an effort to see which one fits best
how many stages of thinking in the heinz moral dilemma?1. pre-conventional morality 2. conventional morality 3. post-conventional morality
midlife crisissupposed phase of adulthood characterised by emotional distress about the aging process and an attempt to regain youth
empty-nest syndromealleged period of depression in mothers following the departure of their grown children from the home
four ways to measure age other than chronological?1. biological 2. psychological 3. functional 4. social