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level: 11.1 Antibody Production

Questions and Answers List

level questions: 11.1 Antibody Production

QuestionAnswer
How does the immune system distinguish between body cells and foreign cells? (2)eliminates foreign material all nucleated cells have distinctive surface molecules = self
What are the self markers on cells called? what do they do? (3)major histocompatibility molecules (MHC class 1) identity tags for the bodies immune system does not react to the cells
What is an antigen?foreign to the body so it triggers immune system
How are antigens recognized? (3)lymphocytes bind detect the shape of an exposed portion of the antigen called epitope
How do lymphocytes destroy antigens?lymphocytes produce antibodies (Adaptive immunity) which binds to epitope through complementary paratopes
What is the exposed portion of an antigen called?epitope
How do antibodies attach to antigens? (method name)complementary paratopes
What are features of an antigen? (2)surface markers in blood and tissue - bacterial, fungal, viral and parasitic self markers of diff organisms
What are the different types of surface markers found? (4)bacterial, fungal, viral and parasitic
Why doe RBCs not have self markers? how are they recognized? (3)not nucleated = no self markers so RBCs can be transferred bw individuals but they have antigenic markers (limits transfusion ability) = ABO
What are the antigenic markers in RBCs called? (2)ABO system surface glycoproteins
What are the differences in the ABO system? (2)RBC can have A or B surface glycoproteins independently or together or have neither (O)
Why do blood transfusions sometimes not work?because people produce antibodies against foreign antibodies (diff blood type would have diff antigenic markers)
What blood groups are each of them compatible with? (4)AB = all A = A or O (B isoantigen is foreign) B = B or O O = only O
What causes the negative or positive blood groups?Rhesus factor glycoprotein is either present or absent = + or -
What happens with incompatible blood transfusion? (3)surface antigens + opposing antibodies = agglutination (clumping) = hemolysis (RBCs destroyed so O2 released into surroundings)
What is a pathogen? (3)agent that causes disease recognized by its antigens eg: bacteria, protist, fungi, parasite
What is a disease?affects normal functioning (can't maintain hemostasis)
What is an illness?deteriorates normal health
Why do some pathogens only affect humans?usually species specific in pathogenesis EG: polio, syphilis, measles
What are zoonotic diseases? (2)from animals to humans eg: rabies (dogs) , influenza (birds), bubonic plague (rats)
What are different ways in which disease can be transmitted? (Disgusted Cats Are Vicious)Direct contact - physical touch / exchanging body fluids Contamination - ingesting pathogens in food Airborne - coughing or sneezing Vectors - intermediary organisms that transfer pathogens w/o developing symptoms themselves
What is clonal selection?process of matching antigens w/ antigen receptors on B and T lymphocytes
What are the steps in fighting a pathogen? (6)1) non specific - macrophage engulf pathogens and breaks them down 2) dendritic cells have the antigen fragments and present them to specific T helper lympho which activates it 3) cytokines released 4) cytokines activate specific B cell to produce antibodies which divides and forms clones 5) clones become short lived plasma cells that produce a large quantity of an antibody 6) small group of clones become long living memory cells for immunity
Why are several lymphocytes activated at the same time? what is this called? (3)pathogens can have multiple antigenic fragments so different lymphocytes activated for different antibodies = polyclonal activation
What are the different methods of antibodies destroying pathogens? PANICPrecipitation = soluble pathogens -> insoluble = solid Agglutination = clumped for easy removal Neutralization = block pathogenic regions (exotoxins = proteins released by bacteria to change cell structure) Inflammation = inflammatory response within body (histamine released) = these 4 help w/ phagocytosis Complement activation = complement proteins destroy membranes (cell lysis)
What are macrophages?phagocytic leukocytes
What is it called when pathogens are identified? (2)opsonisation - when opsonins (Antibodies) bind to bacterial cell which makes it easier for phagocytes to engulf it
What are memory cells? what do they do? (3)made from plasma cells to prevent delay after exposure to prevent symptoms developing long living reacts quickly if infected w the same pathogen
What is an allergen? what is the response like?(2)environmental substance that triggers an immune response even though it isnt harmful response is specific to exposure region (throat) = allergic reaction
What is a severe allergic reaction called?anaphylaxis
What are the stages of an allergic reaction?first exposure (sensitization): 1) allergen (cat hair) enters blood 2) B cells = plasma cells = antibodies (IgE) 3) antibodies attach to mast cell (has histamine inside) second exposure (allergic reaction): 1) allergen binds to antibodies on mast cell 2) histamine released 3) allergic reaction from inflammation from histamine
What do mast cells do?allergy WBC cells that cause inflammation w histamine
What are IgE antibodies?immunoglobulin antibodies attach to mast cells to release histamine to cause inflammation if an allergen is detected
What are histamines?chemicals released by WBCs when the immune system is defending against an allergen causes inflammation
How does an inflammatory response help defend against allergens? (5)improves leukocytes movement by causing vasodilation + capillary permeability capillary widening = increases blood flow increased permeability = fluid release into tissues attraction of leukocytes systemic response = fever and increasing of leukocytes
What does vasodilation cause? consequence? (3)widens blood vessels = better blood flow redness because it moves blood closer to skin heat
what does capillary permeability do? consequence? (3)how much leukocytes leave the bloodstream leads to swelling (more fluid leaks) pain (nerve compression)
What are the symptoms of inflammation? (5)heat redness swelling tenderness pain
What are vaccines? (3)contain antigen determinants trigger immunity but doesn't cause the disease produces memory cells can be conjugated w an adjuvant (boosts immune response)
what is an adjuvant?a substance that enhances the immune systems response to an antigen
What happens when injected with a vaccine? (3)a primary immune response = memory cells made Actual pathogen = memory cells cause better secondary response symptoms dont develop
How is the immunity length from a vaccination determined? (3)depends on how long the memory cells survive may not survive a lifetime may need a booster shot for immunity
what is the weakened form of a pathogen called?attenuated form
How does herd immunity work with vaccines?when individuals who aren't immune to the pathogen are protected from exposure by large amounts of immune people
what is an epidemic?increasing infection in a region
what is a pandemic?epidemic spread across a large geographical area
What is small pox? how was it so easily treated? (6)first disease eradicated by vaccinations in 1967 by WHO easily identified bec of overt symptoms = limit transmission only transmitted through direct contact short lived infection and no mutations global cooperation long term immunity
reasons for changes in pandemic trends?populations increase = increase risk of outbreaks improvement of health services = decrease disease rates diff regions have diff exposure levels
What are monoclonal antibodies?articifical antibodies from a single B cell clone (identical and specific antibodies)
What is the process of creating monoclonal antibodies? (3)animal (mouse) injected w antigen = antigen specific plasma cells removed and fused w tumor cells to form hybridoma cell = endless divisions can make a large amount of antibody
benefits of monoclonal antibodiesidentical specific antibodies produced produced in a large quantity endless divisions relatively easy and cheap
What are uses of monoclonal antibodies?rabies detecting pregnancy
How is monoclonal antibodies used for diseases (2)immune protection targets cancer cells that the body's own immune cells can fail to recognise as bad
How is monoclonal antibodies used to detect pregnancy?hCG = human chorionic gonadotrophin in urine = made during fetal development ELISA = enzyme linked immunosorbent assay = Identifies substance by color change
What is ELISA?enzyme linked immunosorbent assay = pregnancy test
What is the process of ELISA? (5)Monoclonal antibodies for hCG is conjugated to enzyme that changes dye color 2nd set of monoclonal antibodies specific to hCG immobilised to dye substrate if hCG present in urine = reacts with both sets of monoclonal antibody changes color 3rd set of monoclonal antivodies bind to unattached enzyme linked antibodies
What are examples of the first line of defense? (4)skin and mucous membranes lactic acid and fatty acids on the skin lowers pH (5,6) mucus washes away pathogens lysozymes in tears can cause cell lysis cilia in the trachea can help remove pathogens
What is clotting?how broken blood vessels are repaired when damaged = prevents blood loss and pathogenic access
What are the steps in the coagulation cascade for blood clotting? (5)1) damaged cells and platelets = clotting factors 2) clotting factors = platelets become sticky = plug and reduced blood flow to damaged region prothrombin = thrombin (activated) 3) thrombin = converts fibrinogen to fibrin (insoluble) 4) fibrin forms mesh around platelet plug = clot 5) when repaired = plasmin dissolves clot
What is coronary thrombosis?when a cloth forms in a coronary artery (to heart) = acute myocardial infraction (heart attack)
what is atherosclerosis?deposition of cholesterol = damages blood vessels - blood clots form
What are the steps in forming blood clots in coronary arteries? (6)1) atheromas (fatty) = reduces artery lumen diameter 2) less blood flow = +P = damages artery wall 3) wall repaired w fibrous tissue = less elasticity 4)atherosclerotic plaque forms 5) if plaque ruptures = blood clotting = thrombus 6) if thrombus moves = embolus = blocks small arterioles
What is the second line of defence? key features? (3)non specific (doesnt differentiate) and non adaptive (responds in the same way) phagocytes
What is the process of phagocytosis? (5)phagocytic leukocytes enter tissue in response to an infection (extravasation) damaged tissues release histamaine = draws WBC to infection (chemotaxis) pseudopodia surround pathogen and fuse to form vesicle fuses w lysosome = phagolysosome = digested antigens are present on phagocyte which is destroyed w antibodies
what is the third line of defence?lymphocytes( B and T cells) produce antibodies to have a specific and adaptive response against antigens
What are B cells?produce antibodies that recognise a specific antigen
What are T cells?release cytokines to activate specific B lymphocytes
What is an antigen?body recognises it as foreign and causes an immune reponse
What is an antibody? (4)protein made by B and plasma cells that are specific to an antigen 4 pp chains joined w disuplhide bonds ends = variable regions recognition site for immune system (opsonisation)
What are antibiotics? (5)kill bacteria by targeting pro metabolism enzymes, 70s ribosomes, cell wall doesn't target infected host bec doesn't affect euk cells doesn't affect viruses bec they don't have a metabolism narrow or broad spectrum
How are viruses treated? (2)antiviral agents target viral enzymes (reverse transcriptase /caspid)
How do bacteria gain antibiotic resistance? (3)encode traits that degrade antibiotic block entry increase removal
Why does antibiotic resistance increase quickly? (2)bacteria reproduce quickly bacterial conjugation (horizontal gene transfer)
Why is resistant bacteria strains increasing among humans? (4)antibiotics being over prescribed (broad spectrum) / misused freely available w/o prescription used in livestock feed resistant bacteria is common in hospitals (Nosocomial)
Example of antibiotic resistant strain?Golden Staph (MRSA - Methicillin Resistant Staphylococcus aureus
What is penicillin? evidence? (2)antibiotic found by Fleming ring of inhibited bacterial growth on plate
How was the medical applications of penicillin proved? (4)Florey and Chain tested penicillin on infected mice 8 were injected w hemolytic streptococci 4 with penicillin untreated mice died while those treated survived = potential antibiotic
What is HIV? and AIDS? (2)Human immunodeficiency Virus = infects T cells = disable immune system causes many symptoms (AIDs = Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
How does HIV affect the body? (5)affects T cells clinical latency: inactive period = infected T cell reproduce lysogenic cycle: active = destroys T cells = less antibiodies made = less immunity easily infected
How is HIV spread? (5)sexual contact (use condoms) pregnancy, childbirth, breastfeeding drug use (injections) occupational exposure (doctors) Blood transfusions
Who are immune to HIV?lack CD4+ receptor on T cells that HIV needs for docking