psyc10003
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| Representations become increasingly independent of the environmental stimuli they represent (abstract, "virtual"). What are symbolic representations "grounded" in? | Sensory, perceptual and emotional representations derived from experience with the world. |
| What are representations? | Representations are the format in which information is encoded, stored and reconstructed (re-presented) within our minds. Can take the form of mental imagery but also more abstract forms to express more complex relationships between 2+ concepts and allow concepts to be mentally manipulated in relationship to each other. |
| Representations become increasingly independent of the environmental stimuli they represent (abstract, "virtual"). What are symbolic representations "grounded" in? | Sensory, perceptual and emotional representations derived from experience with the world. |
| Representations become increasingly independent of the environmental stimuli they represent (abstract, "virtual"). What are symbolic representations "grounded" in? | Sensory, perceptual and emotional representations derived from experience with the world. |
| Who defined cognition as "the activity of knowing: the acquisition, organisation, and use of knowledge.” | Ulrich Neisser (1976) at the beginning of 'Cognition and Reality' |
| What does Neisser’s perceptual-cognitive cycle help us visualise? | Neisser’s perceptual-cognitive cycle provides a way to understand how our mental representations (schemas) are constantly being updated as we explore the world. |
| A system is cognitive when: | Behaviours are coodinated with environmental features that might not always be present (mental representations). |
| Cognisers have agency, what does this mean? | They sense and act on their environment to: -detect and effect changes -gain information They construct mental models (schemas) to represent the causal structure of their environment. They adapt mental models in response to feedback from their behaviour. They use mental models to guide future behaviour. They form inferences to make sense of experience. |
| What is the Turing Test? | The "imitation game" proposed by Alan Turing. It proposes that if an artificial intelligence can satisfy us of its linguistic competence, then this is a good indication that the machine has a mind. e.g. given a particular linguistic input, the machine provides an appropriate linguistic output. |
| What is cognition built on? | Developmental, bodily (sensory-motor), social and cultural interactions. |
| What is the Chinese Room argument? | Proposed by philosopher John Searle. Argues that even if a computer could generate plausible responses, it does not have the capacity to understand the meaning of the words it is using, not does it have thoughts or feelings about them. |
| What is a propositional representation? | A symbolic code that expresses a relationship between concepts (i.e. a "language of thought"). |
| What do semantic networks do? | Represent knowledge in a hierarchical system of relationships between concepts and their properties, expressed propositionally? |
| What did Shepard & Metzler (1971) propose? | That people need longer for mental rotation with increasing angle between speed follows real-world physical properties of the stimuli. & that we might have "real" images in our mind that we rotate (60deg/sec). |
| Representations become increasingly independent of the environmental stimuli they represent (abstract, "virtual"). What are symbolic representations "grounded" in? | Sensory, perceptual and emotional representations derived from experience with the world. |
| What is a neutral stimulus (NS)? | A stimulus that does not produce the reflex (e.g. the bell before conditioning). |
| What was the Little Albert study by Watson & Rayner (1920)? | First human fear-conditioning study. NS: white rat, UCS: metal bar being strung, |
| What is the definition of learning? | The set of biological, cognitive and social processes through which organisms make meaning from their experiences, producing long-lasting changes in their behaviour, abilities and knowledge. |
| NA | NA |
| What was the Little Albert study by Watson & Rayner (1920)? | First human fear-conditioning study. NS: white rat, UCS: metal bar being strung, |
| What does learning help us do? | Predict the future from past experiences and use these predictions to guide adaptive behaviours. |
| How can we infer that learning has occured? | When an enduring change in the way an animal responds to its environment based on past experiences. |
| What are the fundamental forms of non-associative learning shared by all species? | Sensitisation and habituation. |
| What is sensitisation? | The temporary state of heightened attention and responsivity that accompanies sudden and surprising events. The learner remains alert to potentially threatening stimuli in the environment and has an increased response to subsequent stimuli. |
| What is habituation? | The gradual diminishing of attention and responsivity that occurs when a stimulus persists. |
| What is the other name for conditioning? | Associative learning: learning associations (relationships) between stimuli, and/or between stimuli and behavioural responses. |
| Who were the initial conditioning experiments performed by and what did they involve? | Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936): - in order to get the dogs to produce saliva, Pavlov would put food on their tongues - after some days the dogs started to produce saliva automatically, before he put the food on their tongues - dogs learned to associate the food with a signal (his footsteps) and salivated in anticipation (reflex behaviour) |
| What is classical conditioning? | Process of learning an involuntary association between a neutral stimulus (NS) and an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that can cause a conditioned reflex response in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus. |
| What is a reflex? | A simple, unlearned response governed by the nervous system that occurs naturally in response to the stimulus. |
| What is the first phase of classical conditioning? | 1. Conditions that exist before conditioning (before learning): (a) innate reflex responses of the learning that occur to stimuli that are naturally rewarding (appetitive) or punishing (aversive or threatening). (b) neutrality of stimuli that have not been associated with appetitive or aversive stimuli. |
| What is the second phase of classical conditioning? | 2. During conditioning (learning associations): experiencing a predictive relationship between a neutral stimulus and biologically relevant stimulus. |
| What is the third phase of classical conditioning? | 3. After conditioning: previously neutral stimulus becomes able to produce a learned reflex response in preparation for (or expectancy of) a biologically relevant stimulus. |
| UCS + UCR = | Relfex |
| What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) | A stimulus that always causes an organism to respond in a specific way (e.g. food). |
| What is an unconditioned response (UCR)? | A response that takes place in an organism whenever an unconditioned stimulus occurs (e.g. salivation to food). |
| What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)? | An originally neutral stimulus (NS) that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus and eventually produces the UCS (e.g. the bell). |
| What is a conditioned response (CR)? | After conditioning, this is the response produced when the CS is present (e.g. salivation to the bell). |
| What is the difference between the UCR and CR? | The stimulus that precedes them - a.k.a whether it is a natural or learned response. |
| What is conditioning strengthened by? | Frequency pairings of the CS and UCS. Timing: stronger is the CS is presented immediately prior to the UCS to strengthen the predictive behaviour. |
| What is extinction? | The gradual weakening of conditioned responses. It occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS. It is not an unlearning of the CR, but instead a learned inhibition. |
| What is a neutral stimulus (NS)? | A stimulus that does not produce the reflex (e.g. the bell before conditioning). |
| What is spontaneous recovery? | The reappearance of a previously extinguished response (e.g. when the dog was allowed a few hours rest and after extinction the CS would elicit the CR again). Extinction over multiple sessions helps to prevent spontaneous recovery. |
| What is rapid reacquisition? | Once extinction has occurred, re-learning is substantially faster (than original time) when a second acquisition phase is introduced. |
| What is stimulus generationalisation? | When a CR generalises (transfers) to similar stimuli. |
| What is stimulus discrimination? | When a CR is displayed for one specific CS but not other similar ones. |
| What was the Little Albert study by Watson & Rayner (1920)? | First human fear-conditioning study. UCS: metal bar being strung, UCR&CR: startled from sound. CS: white rat Generalisation occurred to other furry animals & Santa's beard. |
| When does an antecedent become a discriminative stimulus? | When it signals which of two or more potential behaviours is appropriate in a context, e.g. swearing. Discriminant stimulus-reward is based on a classically conditioned association. |
| Who said “Behaviour operates on the environment to generate consequences.”? | Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990) |
| When does an antecedent become a discriminative stimulus? | When it signals which of two or more potential behaviours is appropriate in a context, e.g. swearing. Discriminant stimulus-reward is based on a classically conditioned association. |
| What is the principle behind operant conditioning? | Behaviour is shaped by the learner's history of experiencing rewards and punishments for their actions. |
| What is the Skinner Box? | A "microworld" which Skinner developed in which he could control the animal's experience of reinforcement and punishment. |
| What is a reinforcer? | Any consequence of a behaviour that makes that behaviour more likely to reoccur in the future. They can be positive or negative. |
| What is positive reinforcement? | A stimulus or event, which, when presented as a consequence of a behaviour, increases the likelihood of the behaviour reoccuring in the future. |
| What is negative reinforcement? | A stimulus or event, when reduced or terminated, increases the likelihood that an associated behaviour will reoccur. |
| What is a positive reinforcer? | Something pleasant that is added to increase behaviour. |
| What is a negative reinforcer? | Something unpleasant that is removed to increase behaviour. |
| What is continuous reinforcement? | When each response is reinforced. Rarely happens in natural environments. Leads to rapid extinction once the reinforcer is withheld. |
| What is partial reinforcement? | Reinforcement does not follow each response. Leads to more persistent learning because the leaner is used to the fact that reinforcement occurs in some occasions and not others (a.k.a harder to extinguish than continual). |
| What is an extinction burst? | A brief increase in responding followed by a decrease in trained behaviour (applicable to reinforced behaviours). |
| What is punishment? | Use of aversive consequences to reduce(suppress) an undesirable behaviour. |
| What is a punisher? | Any event which decreases the likelihood of an ongoing behaviour reoccuring. Can be positive or negative. |
| What is positive punishment? | The behaviour is followed by the presentation of an aversive stimulus. Stimulus added to situation, e.g. electric shock. |
| What is negative punishment (response cost)? | Behaviour is followed by withdrawal of rewarding stimulus. Stimulus is taken away, e.g. remove food. |
| What is a positive punisher? | An unpleasant stimulus that weakens behaviour when added as a consequence of the behaviour. |
| What is a negative punisher? | A pleasant stimulus that weakens behaviour when removed as a consequence of the behaviour. |
| When is punishment effective? | 1. Contingency - the relationship between the behaviour and the punisher must be clear. 2. Contiguity - the punisher must follow the behaviour swiftly. 3. Consistency - the punisher needs to occur for every occurrence of the behaviour |
| What are the drawbacks of punishment? | Rarely works for long-term behaviour change as it tends to only suppress behaviour. Does not teach a more desirable behaviour. If the threat of punishment is removed, the behaviour returns. Produces negative feelings in the learner, which does not promote new learning. Harsh punishment may teach the learner to use such behaviour towards others (social learning). |
| What are the alternatives to punishment? | Stop reinforcing the problem behaviour (extinction). Reinforce an alternative behaviour that is both constructive and incompatible with the undesirable behaviour. Reinforce the non-occurrence of the undesirable behaviour. |
| What is an antecedent? | A 'cue' that signals the availability of a reinforcer. Antecedent-reinforcer relationship is based on a classically conditioned association. An antecedent is a stimulus that cues an organism to perform a learned behavior. When an organism perceives an antecedent stimulus, it behaves in a way that maximizes reinforcing consequences and minimizes punishing consequences. |
| What is the "ABC model" of operant conditioning? | Antecedent -> Behaviour -> Consequence |
| When does an antecedent become a discriminative stimulus? | When it signals which of two or more potential behaviours is appropriate in a context, e.g. swearing. Discriminant stimulus-reward is based on a classically conditioned association. |
| What was discovered in Sperling's study - partial report? | Study involved using tones rather than numbers to cue line to be reported. Participants needed only to report one line. Provided a much larger estimate of iconic memory capacity. By varying the onset of the cue it has been shown that after approximately 500ms, the memory trace decayed and items cant be recalled. |
| What is memory? | A set of storage systems and processes for encoding, storing, and retrieving information acquired through our senses and for relating this information to previously acquired knowledge. The mental representation of knowledge within memory systems stored within neural networks of the brain. |
| What was discovered in Sperling's study - partial report? | Study involved using tones rather than numbers to cue line to be reported. Participants needed only to report one line. Provided a much larger estimate of iconic memory capacity. By varying the onset of the cue it has been shown that after approximately 500ms, the memory trace decayed and items cant be recalled. |
| What was discovered in Sperling's study - partial report? | Study involved using tones rather than numbers to cue line to be reported. Participants needed only to report one line. Provided a much larger estimate of iconic memory capacity. By varying the onset of the cue it has been shown that after approximately 500ms, the memory trace decayed and items cant be recalled. |
| What was discovered in Sperling's study - partial report? | Study involved using tones rather than numbers to cue line to be reported. Participants needed only to report one line. Provided a much larger estimate of iconic memory capacity. By varying the onset of the cue it has been shown that after approximately 500ms, the memory trace decayed and items cant be recalled. |
| Who proposed the multi-store model? | Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) |
| What are the three "stores" that memory consists of? | 1. Sensory memory 2. Short-term memory (working memory) 3. Long-term memory |
| What can the three stores of memory be distinguished based on? | How long memory is retained (duration), and how much information can be stored (capacity). |
| What is the processes of encoding? | Most fundamental process of memory. The processes involved in attending to and acquiring information from experiences and mental processes: (a) registration of information in sensory regions of brain. (b) attention to elements of an experience. (c) interpretation and integration of experience with prior knowledge. |
| What is the process of storage? | Consolidation of information which is then stored in networks and neurons throughout the brain/maitenance of a permanent record to be used at a later time. Storage capacity and duration depends on what kind of memory system is involved. |
| What is the process of retrieval? | Utilisation of stored information to create a conscious representation, or to execute a learned behaviour. Explicit and implicit retrieval processes. "Remembering", "knowing" & "doing". |
| What is iconic memory referring to? | Visual sensory memory |
| What is echoic memory referring to? | Auditory sensory memory |
| How long is the information stored in sensory memory retained? | Only some of the information will be retained. Has brief duration (decays quickly) but large capacity (relative to STM). |
| What did George Sperling (1960) study? | Determine the capacity and duration of the iconic sensory memory. Used full-report versus partial report methods. |
| What was discovered in Sperling's study - full report? | Participants could only name 4 of the letters on average. Felt as though their memory was rapidly decaying. |
| What was discovered in Sperling's study - partial report? | Study involved using tones rather than numbers to cue line to be reported. Participants needed only to report one line. Provided a much larger estimate of iconic memory capacity. By varying the onset of the cue it has been shown that after approximately 500ms, the memory trace decayed and items cant be recalled. |
| What did Bandura's study demonstrate? | Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment: Learning can occur socially through observation, in the absence of directly experienced consequences. Perfect is influenced by mental representations (expectations) based on observed consequences. |
| What is a cognitive map? | A mental representation of the spatial characteristics of a familiar environment. |
| What did Bandura's study demonstrate? | Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment: Learning can occur socially through observation, in the absence of directly experienced consequences. Perfect is influenced by mental representations (expectations) based on observed consequences. |
| What did Tolman (1948) study? | Studied rats completing maze-running experiments. Test the idea that rats develop 'spatial maps' of their environment, rather than a series of chained responses. |
| What idea did Tolman demonstrate? | Learning could occur in the absence of rewards and punishments (latent learning). Rewards affect whether the learned behaviour will be demonstrated, not whether learning has occurred. |
| What is another name for latent learning? | "Hidden" learning |
| What is observational learning a demonstration of? | Learning can occur indirectly, without direct reinforcement or punishment. Can take place "socially" and "vicariously" through observing others ("models"). |
| Who is the psychologist most associated with the study of observational learning? | Albert Bandura - interested in demonstrated latent learning. |
| How does observational learning take place? | Active judgement and constructive processes (i.e. involves cognitive processes of mental representation). |
| What did Bandura's study demonstrate? | Vicarious reinforcement and vicarious punishment: Learning can occur socially through observation, in the absence of directly experienced consequences. Perfect is influenced by mental representations (expectations) based on observed consequences. |
| What did further studies show that patients with anterograde amnesia preserved what types of non-declarative memories? | Intact classical and operant conditioning. Intact priming effects. Normal habituation and sensitisation. |
| What are the two types of long-term memory (LTM)? | 1. Declarative memory (explicit) 2. Non-declarative memory (implicit) |