Tough connective tissue membrane that is attached to the bones and that encloses the joint cavity, the capsule holds the bones and other parts of the joint together

Synovial membrane

Makes synovial fluid, which has a lubricating function

Ligament

Short band of tough, flexible, fibrous connective tissue which connects two bones and helps hold together a joint

Flexion

Decreasing the joint angles

Extension

Increasing the joint angle

Adduction

Movement of a body part towards the body's midline (ADD to the midline)

Abduction

Movement of a body part away from the body's midline

Dorsiflexion

Toes are bought closer to the shin (upwards)

Plantar flexion

Movement which decreases the angle of the sole of the foot and the ankle

Latissimus dorsi

Location: middle of the back, partially covered by trapezius function: adduction, extension and rotation at the shoulder

Trapezius

Location: upper middle of the back function: moving, rotation and stabilising the scapula

Deltoids

Location: upper arm and top of the shoulder function: moves and stabilises your shoulder joint

Pectorals

Location: connect the front of chest with bones of upper arm, shoulder function: moves and stabilises shoulder joint

Biceps

Location: upper arm between shoulder and elbow function: flexion and the elbow

Triceps

Location: back of the upper arm between shoulder and elbow function: extension of the elbow

Abdominals

Location: centre of your body function: flexion at the trunk

Gluteal

Location: buttocks function: rotation and extension at the hips

Hamstrings

Location: back of the lower leg function: flexion of the knee

Quadriceps

Location: front of the upper leg function: extension at the knee

Gastrocnemius

Location: back of the lower leg function: extension at the ankle joint (plantarflexion)

Tibialis anterior

Location: front of the lower leg function: flexsion at the ankle joint

Role of tendons

Connect muscles to bones

Agonist

Prime mover, muscle contracting to cause movement

Antagonist

The muscle that relaxes to allow movement to occur at the joint

Isotonic contraction

Contraction of a muscle with movement

Isometric contraction

Contraction without movement e.g. wall sit

Types of isotonic contraction

Concentric, eccentric

Concentric

Contraction that causes the muscle to shorten

Eccentric

Contraction that causes the muscle to lengthen

Fast twitch muscle fibers

Contract faster, tire more easily, good for activities that require shirt bursts of energy (anerobic), creates a lot of force

Slow twitch muscle fibres

Contract slower, don't create as much force, don't tire as quickly, better for aerobic activities

Pathway of air

Mouth/nose passage --> trachea --> bronchi --> bronchioles --> alveoli

How alveoli have adapted for gas exchange

The lining of the alveoli walls are also moist so the gases can easily dissolve, walls are thin so the diffusion distance is short. They have a rich blood supply so there is a steep concentration gradient

Function of diaphragm in normal breathing

In inhalation the diaphragm contracts, in exhalation the diaphragm

Tidal volume & exercise affects

The amount of air breathed in with each normal breath, short term increases with exercise

Vital capacity & exercise affects

Maximum amount of air that can be breathed out after breathing in as much air as possible, can increase after regular aerobic exercise

Residual volume & exercise affects

Volume of air left in the lungs after maximum exhalation, keeps lungs from collapsing, doesn't change with exercise

Minute ventilation & exercise affects

Total volume of air entering the lungs in a minute, increases with exercise

Function of plasma

Consists mainly of water to allow substances to dissolve and be transported easily

Function of red blood cells

Carry oxygen from the lungs and deliver it throughout our body, contain haemoglobin which binds with oxygen in the lungs

Function of white blood cells

Defend us against pathogens by engulfing them or creating antibodies to attack them

Function of platelets

Stop bleeding by forming a blood clot

Role of haemoglobin in carrying oxygen and carbon dioxide

When the haemoglobin has delivered oxygen to the cells, it then becomes a magnet for carbon dioxide, then picks it up and gives it back to the lungs where it leaves the body as we exhale

Function and structure of arteries

Carries blood away from the heart, thick muscle walls, small lumen, no valves

Function and structure of veins

Carries blood back into the heart, thin muscle walls, large lumen, have valves

Function and structure of capillaries

Carries blood to and from the bodies cell, one cell thick, small lumen, no valves

Heart diagram

Function of atria

Receive blood returning to the heart from the body

Function of ventricles

To pump blood into systemic and pulmonary circulations

Function of valves

Prevent the backward flow of blood

Flow of blood through the heart

Blood comes into the vena cava then the right atrium from the body, moves into the right ventricle and is pushed into the pulmonary arteries in the lungs. After picking up oxygen, the blood travels back to the heart through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium, to the left ventricle and out to the body's tissues through the aorta

Stroke volume

Volume of blood pumped out of the heart by each ventricle in one beat

Cardiac output

Heart rate x stroke volume

Aerobic equation

Glucose + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water

Anaerobic equation

Glucose --> lactic acid

EPOC

Caused when athletes use anaerobic respiration during exercise, which causes a build up of lactic acid. This then requires a high breathing rate after exercise to remove lactic acid and allow oxygen to be brought to muscles around the body. The heart rate remains high.

Factors affecting recovery time

Strength, genetics, age, gender, sleep

How overall strength and fitness affects recovery time

The stronger your muscles are, the quicker they will be at absorbing the oxygen needed to remove lactic acid

How genetics affects recovery time

Some people inherit the ability to recover quickly from exercise compared to others

How age affects recovery time

As you get older you will generally need a longer recovery time

How gender affects recovery time

Physically fit women have a greater resistance to fatigue than males, especially at low to moderate intensities

How sleep affects recovery time

Good sleep helps your body recover physically and mentally

Short-term effects of exercise

Heart rate increases, breathing rate increases, sweating, fatigue, nausea

Long-term effects of exercise

Hypertrophia (heart size), bradycardia (resting pulse rate), stroke volume, ability to tolerate lactic acid

Force

Is a push or a pulling action applied upon an object (measured in Newtons)

Inertia

The resistance of an object to any change in its state of motion

Mass

Is the quantity of matter in a body, regardless of its volume or of any forces acting on it (kg)

Acceleration

Is the rate at which an object changes speed (measured in meters per second)

The law of inertia/newtons first law of motion

An object in motion stays in motion at the same speed and in the same direction, and an object at rest stays at rest unless acted upon by an external force

Newtons second law of motion

An object will accelerate when acted upon by an external force the acceleration of the object is proportional to this force and is in the direction by which the force acts

Newtons third law of motion

For every action there exists an equal and opposite reaction

Gravity

The force that attracts the body towards the center of the earth, or towards any other physical body having mass

Muscular force

A push or pull applied to an object provided by muscular contraction

Air resistance

The frictional force that air applies against a moving object

Ground reaction force

The reaction to the force that the body exerts on the ground

Force calculation

Mass (kg) x acceleration

Forces acting upon a moving performer

Gravity, air resistance, muscular force

Forces acting upon a sprinter in the blocks

Gravity, ground reaction force, air resistance