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BIOLOGY TOPIC 5 EVOLUTION


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BIOLOGY TOPIC 5 EVOLUTION


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What does evolution mean? (2)
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cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population over time = encoded by genes and transferred as alleles a change in the allele frequency of a population's gene pool over successive generations

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BIOLOGY TOPIC 5 EVOLUTION - Detalles

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What does evolution mean? (2)
Cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population over time = encoded by genes and transferred as alleles a change in the allele frequency of a population's gene pool over successive generations
How would you describe the variation within a population?
Continuous and follows a normal distribution bec it is gradual + cumlative
When does evolution occur?
When heritable characteristics of a species changes
What does adaptive radiation mean?
Its shows how the evolution of homologous structures can be similar in structure but have different functions in different animals
How does evolution occur?
Variation: genetic mutations chromosomal abnormalities sexual reproduction gene flow (migration) selective pressures: random events (Genetic drift) directional forces (natural or artificial)
What is a mutation?
Change in the nucleotide sequence in the genes eg: germline mutations in gametes (Sex cells) can be passed to offspring
What shows that artificial selection can cause evolution?
Selective breeding of domesticated animals
What are the 3 ways in which meiosis causes variation?
Crossing over = DNA segments are exchanged between homologous pairs Independent assortment = random separation of homologous pairs Random Fertilisation = random fusion of 2 haploid gamers
What is gene flow?
The movement of alleles between different populations
How do populations within a species evolve?
They can slowly change into separate species through evolution eg: continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations
How does different geographical locations cause variation within a species? (5)
They experience different ecological conditions adapt to these conditions differently = gradually diverge degree of divergence depends on how separated they are and how long they have spent apart farther and longer time apart = more divergence
How does gene flow cause variation?
It changes the diversity of a population by immigration or emigration = introduces genes from an alternative population
What are population bottlenecks? how do they affect genetic drift? (3)
Drastically reduces the size of a population eg: environmental disaster, hunting to a point of extinction, habitat destruction = enhances genetic drift
How would you describe the variation within a population?
Continuous and follows a normal distribution bec it is gradual + cumlative
What is the founder effect? how do they affect genetic drift? (3)
A loss of genetic variation when a new population is formed from a small number of individuals form the larger population
How does natural selection change a gene pool?
Changes the composition of a gene pool because of different selective environmental pressures eg: a lizard only eating green beetles = more brown beetles
What is speciation?
When populations of a species can't interbreed and produce offspring
What to the evidence for evolution include? (4) fhsg
Fossil record homologous structures selective breeding geographical distribution of organisms
How does artificial selection cause change in the gene pool?
Involves selective breeding or DNA manipulation to create more favorable traits in their offspring
How does speciation occur?
Mechanisms of change = reduces variation and increase genetic divergence between geographically isolated populations = speciation
What are fossils? fossil record?
Preserved remains or traces of organisms all the fossils (discovers and undiscovered) is the fossil record
What is the limitation to using a fossil record?
Fossilization needs a rare set of circumstances = gaps in the record
What are the 3 sources of variation?
Genetic mutations gene flow sexual reproduction
What are the 3 mechanisms for change?
Genetic drift natural selection artificial selection
How can evidence for evolution be shown?
Identifying similarities in unrelated organisms = common ancestor showing a change in characteristics between current and ancestral species
How are fossils dated and put in order for the law of fossil succession?
It is determined by which rock layer the fossils found in (strata) pros before euks inverts before verts
What are transitional fossils?
Shows the forms in between which happened to show a connections between species it demonstrates common traits in the ancestor and descendants eg: archaeopteryx (links dinosaurs to birds)
How does genetic drift affect gene pool?
Change in the composition of a gene pool bec of chance events has a greater affect when the population is small
What is the law of fossil succession?
Shows a systematic order for when different species appeared eg: ferns appear before flowers
What are homologous structures?
A structure that different species has but is used in different ways they show divergent evolution by adaptive radiation = show common ancestry more similar = closely related eg: pentadactyl limb in vertebrates (5 digit limbs)
Which species can the pentadactyl limb be seen in ?
Man, horse, whale, turtle, frog, bird
What is adaptive radiation?
Rapid evolutionary diversification when members of a species live in niches with different conditions = they adapt in response to the selective pressures eg: different beak shapes in darwin's finches
What is selective breeding?
Form of artificial selection where humans breed animals with desirable characteristics to increase the frequency of these traits eg: race horses are bred for speed eg: beagles are bred for hunting
What is an example of evolution? (moths)
Peppered moths had 2 forms white and black in an unpolluted environments the trees has pale lichen = camo for the lighter moth in a polluted environment the soot blackened the bark and killed the lichen = camo for the dark moth = after the industrial revolution the population of white moths decreased
What are the requirements for fossilisation?
Preservation of bones exposed to high pressure (Rapid burial) = mineralisation anoxic conditions (low oxygen) = stops decomposition
What are vestigial structures?
Reduced remains of functional organs in ancestors eg: whales have a vestigial pelvic bone
What is the condition for natural selection to occur?
There needs to be variation among members of the same species
What are processes that cause natural selection? ICEAGE
Inherited variation: within a population Competition: overproduction Environmental Pressures: cause selection Adaptations: individuals with beneficial traits are more likely to survive Genotype Frequency: changes over time Evolution: change in allele frequency within the population
How do mutations cause variation? (3)
Changes the nucleotide sequence in a section of DNA = new alleles are formed can be beneficial, detrimental or neutral
What are the 3 types of mutations?
Beneficial: (missense) change gene sequence and creates new variations detrimental: (nonsense) overrule normal function of the trait neutral: (silent) no effect
What are adaptations?
Characteristics that make an individual more suited to its environment
How does crossing over in meiosis cause variation?
DNA segments are exchanged bw homologous chromos in P1 = all 4 recombinant chromatids will be genetically different offspring would have a unique gene combination not present in either parent
How does independent assortment cause variation?
In M1 the chromosomes direction towards the opposite pole is random = diff combos of chromosomes can be inherited
How does sexual reproduction cause variation?
Fusion of 2 different haploid gametes = diploid zygote = divides by mitosis to form an embryo
What happens when species produce more offspring than the environment can handle? (4)
With plenty of resources population grows to its biotic potential (J curve) as population grows = environmental resistance sets in bec resources become limited (plateaus) overproduction = competition and struggle for survival growth doesn;t exceed the carrying capacity (k)
What are some examples of environmental pressures? PANDA PAW
Predators Available resources Nutrient supply Diseases Accumulation of wastes Phenomena (disasters) Abiotic factors Weather
How does natural selection occur with adaptation?
The better adapted individuals survive and produce more offspring while the less adapted die / make fewer offspring
What are different types of adaptations?
Structural: physical differences (neck length) Behavioral: difference in activity (possums pretending to die) Physiological: in response by vital organs (homeothermy) Developmental: changes across a lifespan (senescence)
How does allele frequency change?
Better adapted individuals survive and pass on their genes = change in allele frequency in the population bec some genotypes will be more common = evolution
What is adaptive radiation?(3)
Rapid evolutionary diversification of a single ancestral line when a single species live in different niches with diff environmental conditions each member develop different characteristics in accordance to their selective pressures
How is adaptive radiation seen in Darwin's finches? (3)
They have different beak shapes based on their type of nutrition in 1977 a drought increased the f of larger beak sizes through natural selection dry conditions = plants making seeds with tougher seed casings
What are antibiotics?
Chemicals made by microbes to kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria = used for infections some bacterial strains have evolved antibiotic resistance genes and reproduce through binary fission selective pressure of antibiotics = antibiotic resistance gene to be more frequent (Evolution)
Why is natural selection important?
Increases F of useful characteristics so that the individual is better adapted and reduces the characteristics that cause changes within a species
What is an example of antibiotic resistance?
Golden staph causes infections to the skin (lesions) treated with methicillin but bacterial strains developed resistant (MRSA) Alternative antibiotics are prescribed now
Who proposed the theory of natural selection? what did they say?
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace the ones most responsive to change survive
What causes inheritable variation among members? (3)
Mutations = germline mutations (gametes) cause changed characteristics in offspring meiosis = crossing over + random assortment cause gamete variation sexual reproduction = fusion of 2 diff gametes make a genetically distinct zygote
What is the binomial system?
A system of naming organisms and is universal among biologists when new species are discovered
What are the 3 domains of life?
Eukarya = eukaryotic organisms (membrane bound nucleus) archaea = extremophilic prokaryotic organisms (lack nucleus) eubacteria= common prokaryotic organisms (lack nucleus)
What is the hierarchy of taxa? Katy Perry Came Over For Grape Soda
Kingdom Phyla Class Order Family Genus Species
Why are groups of species sometimes reclassified?
When new evidence shows that previous taxon contains species that have evolved from diff ancestral species
What are the uses for classification? (4)
To collect and sort info about different organisms to identify organisms according to a global system to compare organisms based on common features Demonstrate evolutionary links
What is artificial classification? (4)
Groups organisms based on non-predictive features easy to develop stable but it doesn't consider how species are related so its not used much
What is natural classification?
Groups organisms according to evolutionary relationships predictive but highly changeable
What is phylogenetic classification?
Differentiated organisms based on genetic features
What are the 3 types of classification?
Artificial natural phylogenetic
What is included in natural classification?
The genus and higher taxa consists of all the species that have evolved from one ancestral species helps to identify species and allows prediction of characteristics shared by a group of species
What is a taxon? (3)
Standard classification unit to group related organisms each taxon comes from a single ancestor more taxa organisms share, the more related they are
What are the characteristics of a scientific name of an organism? (3)
Genus is written first and is capitalised (Homo) Species is in lower case (sapiens) They can have a sub species name sometimes = Human
What is the full classification for humans? ACMPHHS
K = Animalia P = Chordata C = Mammalia O = Primate F = Hominidae G = Homo S = sapiens
What are dichotomous keys? (5)
A way of identifying whereby a group of organisms are divided into 2 categories until all the organisms are identified can be shown as a branched flowchart or with a series of statements in a numbered sequence Unchangeable characteristics should be used (number of legs) = size, color and behavior can change over time
What are the 4 Plant phyla?
Bryophyta Coniferophyta Filicinophyta Angiospermophyta
What are the 7 Animal Phyla?
Porifera Cnidaria Platyhelmintha Annelida Mollusca Arthropoda Chordata
What are the features of bryophyta? (7)
Don't have true roots or leaves no vascularisation (xylem and phloem) release sporangia to reproduce have a root like structure called rhizoid to anchor them Prevent flooding found in clumps in damp places like swamps EG: Mosses and liverworts
What are the features of filicinophyta? (6)
Vascular pinnate leaves no seeds shallow roots reproduce by spores on the underside of the leave (sori) EG: Ferns
What are the features of coniferophyta? (5)
Woody stems and waxy needlelike leaves vascular non motile seeds ( male and female cones) provide shelter EG: Pine trees
What are the features of angiospermophyta? (5)
Vascular reproduce by seeds in ovules (can become fruits) mono / dicotyledons transfer pollen from anther to stigma to reproduce EG: flowers and grasses
What are the features of porifera? (8)
Sponges full of water no mouth or anus calcium spicules for structure aquatic sessile (Stay in place) asymetrical reproduce by releasing egg and sperm separately / budding EG: sea sponges
What are the feature for cnidaria? (6)
Radial cnidocytes (tentacles with stinging cells) used for capturing prey mouth no anus corals secrete CaCO3 skeleton EG: anemones, jellyfish
What are the features of Platyhelminths? (5)
Flattened body shape (large S:vol ratio) mouth no anus bilateral can be parasitic and live within a host organism eg: tapeworms and planaria
What are the features of annelida? (5)
Bilateral ringed segments mouth and anus move by peristaltic contraction EG: earthworms and leeches
What are the features of mollusca? (7)
Bilateral mouth and anus visceral mass mantle muscular foot can have a shell eg: snails, octopi, clams
What are the features of arthropoda? (5)
Bilateral mouth and anus jointed segments hard chitin exoskeleton EG: spiders and scorpions
What are the features of chordata? (4)
All vertebrates bilateral mouth and anus notochord and hollow dorsal nerve tube = backbone
What are the features of fish? (6)
Covered in scales made out of bony plates external fertilisation breathe through gills ectothermic (doesn't maintain body temp) swim bladder EG: Zebrafish
What are the features of amphibians? (6)
Moist skin (permeable to gases and water) external fertilisation breathe through skin but also have simple lungs ectothermic larval in water and adult on land EG: frogs and salamanders
What are the features of reptiles? (7)
Covered in keratin scales soft shelled eggs internal fertilisation lungs with extensive folding ectothermic simple teeth EG: lizards
What are the features of birds? (6)
Covered in keratin feathers hard shelled eggs breathe through lungs with parabronchial tubes maintain body temp wings and beaks (no teeth) EG: sparrows
What are the features of mammals? (7)
Skin has keratin hair follicles live births internal fertilisation breathe through lungs with alveoli maintain body temp feed young with milk from mammary glands EG: elephants
What is a clade?
A group of organisms that evolved from one ancestor (node) clade members have common traits bec of a shared evolutionary lineage
What are cladograms?
Tree diagrams to show the most probable sequence of divergence in clades
How is evidence for which species are part of a clade found?
From the base sequence of a gene or the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein
What is phylogeny?
The evolutionary history of a particular species or group = shown as cladograms (tree diagrams)
What are cladograms based on?
Structural features (lungs, hair) or molecular features (sequences, mutations)
What is cladistics?
Determination of evolutionary relationships
What does each branch point represent?
A speciation event (Divergence) species with fewer branch points = more closely related
What are the limitations of using structural characteristics to compare species? (2)
1) closely related organisms can show very diff features (homologous) bec of adaptive radiation = rapid divergence to suit ecological niches 2) distantly related organisms can show similar features (analogous) bec of convergent evolution =common selection pressures)
What are homologous structures? (4)
Same anatomy but with different functions shows that they share a common ancestor they have different functions bec of divergent evolution to suit diff ecological niches eg: lizards and birds have similar bon structures in the wings and feet